victory66

05.09.2021 13:05 •  Английский язык

№3 Прочитайте текст и выполните перевод 3 абзаца Two major modes are composing the land transport system, roads and ralways. Obviously, roads were established first, as rail technology only became available by the 1Sth century, in the midst of the industrial revolution, Historical considerations are important in assessing the structure of current land transportation networks, Modem roads tend to follow the structure established by previous roads, as w the case for the modern European road network (especially in Italy, France and Britain) that follows the structure established by the Roman road network centuries before. The first land roads took their origins from trails which were generally used to move from one hunting territory to another. With the emergence of the first forms of nation-states trails started to be used for commercial purposes as trade expanded and some became roads, especially through the domestication of animals such as horses, mules and camels. The use of wheeled vehicles encouraged construction of better roads. However, a road transport system requires a level of labor organization and administrative control that could only be provided by a central government offering some military protection over trade routes. By 3,000 BC the first road systems appeared in Mesopotamia and asphalt was used to pave roads in Babylon by 625 BC. The Persian Empire had a road of 2,300 km in the 5th century BC. However, the first major road system was established by the Roman Empire from 300 BC and onwards, mainly for, economic, military and administrative reasons. It relied on solid road engineering methods, including the laying of foundations and the construction of bridges. This was also linked with the establishment of pan- continental trading routes, such as the Silk Road, linking Europe and Asia by 100 BC. Following the fall of the Roman Empire in the 5th century, integrated road transportation fell out of favor as most roads were locally constructed and maintained. Because of the lack of maintenance of many road segments, land transport became a very hazardous activity. It is not until the creation of modern nation-states in the 17th century that national road transportation systems were formally established. The French, through central government efforts, build their Royal Roads system spanning 24,000 km, over which a public transport service of stagecoaches carrying passengers and mail was established. The British, mainly through private efforts, built a 32,000 km system of turnpikes where tolls have to be paid for road usage. A similar initiative was undertaken in the United States in the 19th century and by the early 20" century, a network of 3 million km of roads, most unpaved, was in operation. 1794 marks the beginning of modem road transportation with the first mail coach service between London and Bristol, operating under a timetable. Also of high significance were technological innovations in road engineering that permitted the construction of, reliable and low cost hard surface roads. One such achievement came from the Scottish engineer McAdam who developed a process (later known as macadam) where hard and waterproof road surfaces were made by cemented crushed stone, bound together either with water or with bitumen. It