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UNIT 5
A foundation is a structure that transfers loads to the earth. Foundations are generally broken into two categories: shallow foundations and deep foundations.
A shallow foundation is usually embedded a meter or so into soil. One common type is the spread footing which consists of pads of concrete or other materials which extend below the frost line and transfer the weight from walls and columns to the soil or bedrock. Another common type is the slab-on-grade foundation where the weight of the building is transferred to the soil through a concrete slab placed at the surface.
A deep foundation is used to transfer a load from a structure through an upper weak layer of soil to a stronger layer of soil.
There are different types of deep foundations including helical piles, impact driver piles, caissons, piers, and earth stabilized columns. The naming conventions for different types of foundations vary among different engineers. Historically, piles were wood, later steel, reinforced concrete, and pre-tensioned concrete.
Foundations are designed to have an adequate load capacity with limited settlement by a geotechnical engineer, and the foundation itself is designed structurally by a structural engineer.
The primary design concerns are settlement and bearing capacity. When considering settlement, total settlement and differential settlement are normally considered.
The primary design concerns are settlement and bearing capacity. When considering settlement, total settlement and differential settlement are normally considered. Differential settlement is when one part of a foundation settles more that another part. This can cause problems to the structure the foundation will fail.
Other design considerations include scour and frost heave. Scour is when flowing water removes supporting soil from around a foundation (like a pier supporting a bridge over a river). Frost heave occurs when water in the in the ground freezes to form ice lenses.
Changes in soil moisture can cause expansive clay to swell and shrink. This swelling can vary across the footing due to seasonal changes or the effects of vegetation removing moisture. The variation is swell can cause the soil to distort, cracking the structure over it. This is a particular problem for house footings in semi-aried climates such as south Australia, southwestern US, Turkey, Israel, Iran and south Africa where wet winters are followed by not dry summers. Raft slabs with inherent stiffness have been developed in Australia with capabilities to resist this movement. When structures are built in areas of permafrost, special consideration must be given to the thermal effect the structure will have on the permafrost. Generally, the structure is designed in a way that tries to prevent the permafrost from melting.
2. My dad said that he wants to retire when he is sixty.
3. We interview everyone who applies for a job before making our decision.
4. The government taxes everyone who works and then spends the money on roads, hospitals and thinks like that.
5. Wendy works hard for the company and I think she deserves a more challenging job.
6. I read recently that women still earn less that men for the same job and I don't think it is fair.
2) Americans celebrate Christmas on the 25th of December.
3) The 1st of January is not so widely celebrated in the United States as we do it
in Russia.
4) The most important holiday in America is the 4th of July,
The Independence Day.
5) The 4th of July is the day-off and people don't go to work. Other holidays
when people don't go to work are: Martin Luther King's day on the 20th of January, Labour Day on the 7th of September and Thanksgiving on the last Friday of November.
6) It is a big white stone on the shore in Plymouth in Massachusetts, that the pilgrims landed on. It is called «The Plymouth Rock».
7) Halloween is children's most favourite holiday.